Chocolate

Chocolate is a raw or processed food produced from the seed of the tropical Theobroma cacao tree. Cacao has been cultivated for at least three millennia in Mexico, Central and South America, with its earliest documented use around 1100 BC. The majority of the Mesoamerican people made chocolate beverages, including the Aztecs. The seeds of the cacao tree have an intense bitter taste and fermented to develop the flavor. After fermentation, the beans are dried, then cleaned, and then roasted, and the shell removed to produce cacao nibs. The nibs ground to cocoa mass, pure chocolate in rough form. Because this cocoa mass usually liquefied then molded with or without other ingredients is chocolate liquor. The liquor processed into two components: cocoa solids and cocoa butter. Unsweetened baking chocolate contains primarily cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate consumed today is in the form of sweet chocolate, combining cocoa solids, cocoa butter or other fat, and sugar. Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that additionally contains milk powder or condensed milk. White chocolate contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk but no cocoa solids. Cocoa solids contain alkaloids such as theobromine and phenethylamine, which have physiological effects on the body. It links to serotonin levels in the brain. Some research found that chocolate, eaten in moderation, could lower blood pressure. The presence of theobromine renders it toxic to some animals, especially dogs and cats. Chocolate has become one of the most popular food types and flavors in the world. Gifts of chocolate molded into different shapes have become traditional on certain holidays: chocolate bunnies and eggs are popular on Easter, chocolate coins on Hanukkah, Santa Claus and other holiday symbols on Christmas, and chocolate hearts or chocolate in heart-shaped boxes on Valentine's Day. Chocolate in cold and hot beverages produces chocolate milk and hot chocolate. Several types of chocolate distinguished. Pure, unsweetened chocolate contains primarily cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate consumed today is in the form of sweet chocolate, combining chocolate with sugar. Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that additionally contains milk powder or condensed milk. European rules specify a minimum of 25% total dry cocoa solids for Milk Chocolate.5 "White chocolate" contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk but no cocoa solids. Chocolate contains alkaloids such as theobromine and phenethylamine, which have some physiological effects in humans, but the presence of theobromine renders it toxic to some animals, such as dogs and cats. It links to serotonin levels in the brain. Dark chocolate promoted for its health benefits. It possess substantial amount of antioxidants that reduce the formation of free radicals. White chocolate formed from a mixture of sugar, cocoa butter and milk solids. Although its texture is similar to milk and dark chocolate, it does not contain any cocoa solids. Because of this, many countries do not consider white chocolate as chocolate at all. Although first introduced by Hebert Candies in 1955, Mars, Incorporated was the first to produce white chocolate within the United States. Because it does not contain any cocoa solids, white chocolate does not contain any theobromine, meaning animals can consume it. Dark chocolate produced by adding fat and sugar to the cacao mixture. The U.S. Government calls this "sweet chocolate", and requires a 15% concentration of chocolate liquor. European rules specify a minimum of 35% cocoa solids.5 Dark chocolate, with its high cocoa content, is a rich source of epicatechin and Gallic acid, which thought to possess cardio protective properties. Dark chocolate reduces the possibility of a heart attack when consumed regularly in small amounts. Semisweet chocolate is a dark chocolate with low sugar content. Bittersweet chocolate is chocolate liquor to which some sugar, more cocoa butter, vanilla and sometimes lecithin added. It has less sugar and more liquor than semisweet chocolate, but the two are interchangeable in baking.

Comps

In the context of casinos, comps are complimentary items given out by casinos to encourage players to gamble. The amount of comps that a player is given usually depends on what game they are playing, how much they are betting, and how long they have played. Most casinos have hosts who are responsible for giving out free items and contacting players to bring them back to the casino. Pit bosses can also award comps at table games. Most casinos now require a player to have a player's club or similar card, so that their play can be tracked and comps awarded.

The lowest level of comp available at most casinos is free alcohol and other beverages. Many casinos provide free drinks to anyone who is gambling.

The second level of comp that many players earn is free meals. Many casinos have several restaurants and may require more play to earn a comp to the higher end restaurant. Often the player is given a certain amount to spend, but sometimes, particularly with high rollers, the player may be given the right to order as much food as they want.

The next level of comps is usually free hotel rooms. Many casinos have attached hotels, but those that don't may have the ability to comp rooms to a hotel nearby. Many casino hotels have higher quality rooms, such as suites, villas, presidential suites and so on for bigger bettors. Many players who receive hotel rooms receive a package called RFB for room, food, and beverage or RF for smaller bettors, or jurisdictions where casinos are not allowed to give free alcohol.

Many casinos also offer other comps, especially to high rollers. These may include airfare reimbursement, limo rides, prostitution services, tickets to shows, golf, free concierge services, cash back, private gaming areas, and private jet service.

Casinos also frequently offer players comps by mail. These may be free bet offers, free meals, discounted or free rooms, or entries into tournaments or prize drawings.

The odds in favor of an event or a proposition are expressed as the ratio of a pair of integers, which is the ratio of the probability that an event will happen to the probability that it will not happen. For example, the odds that a randomly chosen day of the week is a Sunday are one to six, which is sometimes written 1:6, or 1/6. In probability theory and statistics, where the variable p is the probability in favor of the event, and the probability against the event is therefore 1-p, the odds of the event are the quotient of the two, or p/(1-p). That value may be regarded as the relative likelihood the event will happen, expressed as a fraction if it is less than 1, or a multiple if it is equal to or greater than one of the likelihood that the event will not happen. In the example just given, saying the odds of a Sunday are one to six or, less commonly, one-sixth means the probability of picking a Sunday randomly is one-sixth the probability of not picking a Sunday. While the mathematical probability of an event has a value in the range from zero to one, the odds in favor of that same event lie between zero and infinity. The odds against the event with probability given as p are (1-p)/p.

The odds against Sunday are 6:1 or 6/1 = 6: it is 6 times as likely that a random day is not a Sunday. Hence 'odds' are an expression of relative probabilities. Generally 'odds' are quoted in this format odds against rather than as odds in favor of, because of the possibility of confusion of the latter with the fractional probability of an event occurring. E.g., the probability of a random day of the week is a Sunday is 'one-seventh' 1/7. A bookmaker may for his own purposes use 'odds' of 'one-sixth', but the overwhelming everyday use by most people is odds of the form 6 to 1, 6-1, 6:1, or 6/1 all read as 'six-to-one' where the first figure represents the number of ways of failing to achieve the outcome and the second figure is the number of ways of achieving a favorable outcome: thus these are odds against. In other words, an event with m to n odds against would have probability n/ m + n, while an event with m to n odds on would have probability m/ m + n. Even in probability theory, odds may be more natural or more convenient than probabilities. This is in particular the case in problems of sequential decision making as for instance in problems of how to stop online on a last specific event, which is solved by the odds algorithm.

In some games of chance, using odds against is also the most convenient way to understand what winnings will be paid if the selection is successful: the winner will be paid 'six' of whatever stake unit was bet for each 'one' of the stake unit wagered. For example, a winning bet of 10 at 6/1 will win '6 × 10 = 60' with the original 10 stake also being returned. Betting odds are skewed to ensure that the bookmaker makes a profit—if true odds were offered the bookmaker would break even in the long run—so the numbers do not represent the true odds.

Odds on means that the event is more likely to happen than not. This is sometimes expressed with the smaller number first 1:2 but more often using the word on 2:1 on meaning that the event is twice as likely to happen as not.

Decimal presentation

Taking an event with a 1 in 5 probability of occurring i.e. a probability of 1/5, 0.2 or 20%, then the odds are 0.2 / 1 − 0.2 = 0.2 / 0.8 = 0.25. This figure 0.25 represents the monetary stake necessary for a person to gain one monetary unit on a successful wager when offered fair odds. This may be scaled up by any convenient factor to give whole number values. For example, if a stake of 0.25 wins 1 unit, then scaling by a factor of four means a stake of 1 wins 4 units.

Ratio presentation

Fixed odds gambling tends to represent the probability as fractional odds, and excludes the stake. For example, 0.20 is represented as 4 to 1 against written as 4-1, 4:1, or 4/1, since there are five outcomes of which four are unsuccessful. Thus, the stake returned must be added to the odds to compute the entire return of a successful bet. In craps, the payout would be represented as 5 for 1, and in money line odds as +400 representing the gain from a 100 stake.

By contrast, for an event with a 4 in 5 probability of occurring i.e. a probability of 4/5, 0.8 or 80%, then the odds are 0.8 / 1 − 0.8 = 4. If one bets 4 units at these odds and the event occurs, one receives back 1 unit plus the original unit 4 units stake. This would be presented in fractional odds of 4 to 1 on'' written as 1/4 or 1–4 , in decimal odds as 1.25 to include the returned stake, in craps as 5 for 4, and in money line odds as −400 representing the stake necessary to gain 100.

Fixed odds are not necessarily presented in the lowest possible terms; if there is a pattern of odds of 5–4, 7–4 and so on, odds which are mathematically 3–2 are more easily compared if expressed in the mathematically equivalent form 6–4. Similarly, 10–3 may be stated as 100–30.

Gambling odds versus probabilities

In gambling, the odds on display do not represent the true chances that the event will occur, but are the amounts that the bookmaker will pay out on winning bets. In formulating his odds to display the bookmaker will have included a profit margin which effectively means that the payout to a successful bettor is less than that represented by the true chance of the event occurring. This profit is known as the 'over-round' on the 'book' the 'book' refers to the old-fashioned ledger in which wagers were recorded, and is the derivation of the term 'bookmaker' and relates to the sum of the 'odds' in the following way:

In a 3-horse race, for example, the true probabilities of each of the horses winning based on their relative abilities may be 50%, 40% and 10%. These are simply the bookmaker's 'odds' multiplied by 100% for convenience. The total of these three percentages is 100%, thus representing a fair 'book'. The true odds against winning for each of the three horses are 1-1, 3-2 and 9-1 respectively. In order to generate a profit on the wagers accepted by the bookmaker he may decide to increase the values to 60%, 50% and 20% for the three horses, representing odds against of 4-6, 1-1 and 4-1. These values now total 130%, meaning that the book has an over round of 30 130 − 100. This value of 30 represents the amount of profit for the bookmaker if he accepts bets in the correct proportions on each of the horses. The art of bookmaking is that he will take in, for example, $130 in wagers and only pay $100 back including stakes no matter which horse wins.

Profiting in gambling involves predicting the relationship of the true probabilities to the payout odds. Sports information services are often used by professional and semi-professional sports bettors to help achieve this goal.

The odds or amounts the bookmaker will pay are determined by the total amount that has been bet on all of the possible events. They reflect the balance of wagers on either side of the event, and include the deduction of a bookmaker’s brokerage fee vig or vigorish.

Indian Poker

Blind man's bluff also called Indian poker, or squaw poker or Indian head is a version of poker that is unconventional in that each person sees the cards of all players except his own.

The standard version is simply high card wins. Each player is dealt one card that he displays to all other players traditionally stuck to the forehead facing outwards- supposedly like an Indian feather. This is followed by a round of betting. Players attempt to guess if they have the highest card based on the distribution of visible cards and how other players are betting.

Other versions forehead stud are variations on stud poker, in which one or more of the hole cards is hidden from its owner, but shown to all other players, as above. During its coverage of the 2004 World Series of Poker, ESPN showed a Blind Man's Bluff version of Texas hold'em.